Ancient self development methods

[Preety_India]

This is my journal on personal development where I gather insights from ancient cultures and use their wisdom in daily life in my personal development journey.  

 

[Preety_India]

I have come a long way. But it's time to start all over again.  

Starting with ancient wisdom

The cultures im gonna explore are 

Aztecs Egyptians, Chinese, Hindu and Celts.  

 

[Preety_India]

How ancient egyptians influence personal development 

 

 

Edited June 25, 2019 by Preety_India

[Preety_India]

In Ancient Egypt lies a towering, historical treasury; the culture, artistry, customs and architecture of this prominent era remain a global fascination. The celebrated structures of antiquity such as the pyramids, temples of Karnak and Luxor, Ramesseum, Abu Simbel and the tombs of the Valley of the Kings and the Valley of the Queens attest to Ancient Egypt’s preeminent civilization in the Mediterranean region.

 

The early predynastic settlement of the Northern Nile Valley marked the advent of Ancient Egypt. And the Pharaonic period is preceded by the amalgamation of Lower and Upper Egypt, around 3200 BC.

 

Around 3600 B.C., the Neolithic Egyptian community’s culture was mainly based on raising crops and domesticating animals. Soon after 3600 B.C., the growing Egyptian populace began to rapidly move towards a refined civilization. During this time, a new and unique pottery began to emerge, and the utilization of copper became extensively widespread. Furthermore, the Mesopotamian procedure of sun-dried bricks and codes of agricultural building became prevalent in the course of this era.

 

The earliest tombs for the elite were mastabas and then came step pyramids. 

 

The Old Kingdom The Old Kingdom is an era of ancient Egypt that comprises the third to sixth dynasties from around 2686 - 2181 B.C. It is an era which saw ultimate prosperity and the manifestation of the world’s first grand monumental building—the Pyramid. The Old Kingdom is dated from (2686- 2181 B.C.)—from the Third Dynasty to the Sixth Dynasty. This era is called “the Age of the Pyramids” because of the plethora of pyramid constructioned at the time.

 

The pharaoh, during this era, was idolized as a deity by the Egyptians; they believed that he guaranteed the yearly deluge of the Nile, which was essential for agriculture. The Egyptians held the views of time functioning in cycles, and that the Pharaohs on earth toiled to maintain the steadiness of those cycles.

 

The Fourth Dynasty of Egypt Egypt, under the Fourth Dynasty of the Old Kingdom (2613-2494), was able to achieve the grand feat of building the Giza pyramids owing to the extended peace which was devoid of any foreign threats. Thus, their time and energy was expended on nurturing art.

The Fifth Dynasty of Egypt The Fifth Dynasty of ancient Egypt (Dynasty V) is dated approximately from 2494 to 2345 B.C. The first two kings of the Fifth Dynasty were the sons of lady Khentkaues—member of the fourth dynasty royals. With the emergence of the Fifth Dynasty came the establishment of an administrative system and for the first time came high officials that were not a member of the royals.  The pyramids of the Dynasty V are smaller and weaker than those of the Fourth Dynasty. Nevertheless, carvings of the mortuary temples are well conserved and of supreme quality. The enduring papyri of this period attest to the development of accounting and record keeping. They recorded the re-allocation of property between the royal residence, the officials and temples.

Userkaf was the first king of the Fifth Dynasty of ancient Egypt who reigned from 2494-2487 B.C. Throughout the period of his rule, the cult of Ra (god of the sun) obtained unprecedented importance.

The Sixth Dynasty of Egypt The Sixth Dynasty of ancient Egypt (Dynasty VI) is dated from 2345-2181 B.C. The surviving relics of several inscriptions from the Sixth Dynasty include documents of trading expeditions southward starting from the reign of Pepi I. Experts believe that the Sixth Dynasty is the last dynasty of the Old Kingdom.

First Intermediate Period and the fall of the Old Kingdom The fall of the Old Kingdom and the poverty that came after Pepi II was indeed unexpected. The destruction of the Old Kingdom was occasioned by a sudden, unforeseen decline in the Nile flood. The situation was so brutal that famine, as a result, pervaded the country, paralyzed the political institutions, and engendered civil unrest. People were conducting unfathomable deeds such as killing and eating their own children and defying the sacred sanctity of the dead.

 

Following the fall of the Old Kingdom, emerged the time known as the First Intermediate period which lasted for about 200 years. The period is generally considered to include a rather unknown set of pharaohs

 

The Middle Kingdom After the Old Kingdom collapsed in 2181 BC, ancient Egypt fell in the merciless hands of disorder and inundating chaos. This period of turmoil, which is called ‘The First Intermediate Period’ or the ‘Dark Period’, lasted for over one hundred years.

Very little record exists about the matrix of life in Egypt during this era. But what is confirmed is that this was a period during which ancient Egypt was divided and ruled by two powerful groups. One regime based its power in Lower Egypt at Heracleopolis, whereas the other inhabited Upper Egypt and made Thebes its capital. Then in 2055 B.C. the Middle Kingdom emerged and marked the end of The First Intermediate Period. The advent of the Middle Kingdom was a defining moment in the history of ancient Egypt. It is believed to be Egypt’s ‘Classical Age’, a time where Egyptian art and culture reached their summit.

 

The Middle Kingdom is known for uniting Egypt again and placing it under one rule, which is why this epoch is often referred to as ‘The Period of Reunification.’ This empire consisted of two powerful dynasties–The Eleventh Dynasty and The Twelfth Dynasty. According to some historians, however, the first half of the Thirteenth Dynasty was also part of the Middle Kingdom.

 

The union of Upper and Lower Egypt in 2055 B.C. marked the emergence of the Middle Kingdom. Mentuhotep II then received high acclamation for accomplishing what seemed impossible for over 100 years–uniting Egypt. The whole of Egypt then regarded Mentuhotep as a divine being. During his reign he was given quite a lot of names; ‘The son of Hathor, The lady of Dendera, Mentuhotep’, ‘The divine one of the white crown’, ‘The golden Falcon, lofty in plumes’ were but a few.

Mentuhotep made Thebes the capital of the Middle Kingdom. He ruled for 51 years, until he died in 2010 B.C. He was buried at Deir el-Bahari.

Queen Sobekneferu was the first female pharaoh in ancient Egypt and last of the Twelfth Dynasty. She was the daughter of Amenemhat III and the half-sister of her predecessor Amenemhet IV.

The death of Queen Sobekneferu marked the end of the Middle Kingdom. After her, a series of kings made claim to the throne, but ruled only for an abbreviated time. According to historians, these kings are part of the Thirteenth Dynasty. The names of these kings and their successive order are listed in the Turin Canon.

Soon after, the Middle Kingdom came to an official end and the Second Intermediary period begun.

 

Edited June 28, 2019 by Preety_India

[Preety_India]

The New Kingdom The New Kingdom of Egypt (1550-1069 B.C.), otherwise known as the Empire of Egypt, was instituted when Ahmose I expelled the foreign rule of Hyksos who had reigned during the Second Intermediate period (1802–1550 B.C.).The New Kingdom includes the 18th, 19th and 20th dynasties. In the later days of this epoch (1292–1069 B.C.) eleven pharaohs obtained the name of Ramesses, as a result, this time is also called the Ramesside period. This period comprises the reign of today’s best known pharaohs of Egypt: Hatshepsut, Tutankamun, Thutmose III, Amenhotep, Akhenaten and many others. The celebrated relics of history such as the temples of Karnak and Luxor, Abu Simbel, Ramesseum, and the tombs of the Valley of the Kings and the Valley of the queens were built in the course of this time. Egypt, with a strong central government, saw a prosperous year with an expansion of its dominion and trade routes. The Eighteenth Dynasty Dynasty XVIII (1543-1292 BC), otherwise known as the Thutmosid Dynasty because of the four kings named Thutmose, boasted Egypt’s foundation to a prosperous reign. The advent of the New Kingdom ushered in the revival of Egypt; the Theban Kings ousted the Hyksos and the Egyptian armed forces enlarged the kingdom’s dominion by entering the lands of Palestine and Syria.

 

Egypt enjoyed an unprecedented prosperity of economy, trade expansion, foreign relations, innovative thinking, and artistry. This was made possible because of a succession of great kings and queens and a well-structured system of administration. The appointment of official positions was based on merit and competence which allowed for effective advances in all scopes of the kingdom’s enterprise.

 

Now Egypt is big.. 

This period was anything but uneventful. Thutmose I conquered and expanded Egypt’s dominion to Syria and Palestine to the west, the Euphrates River in the north, and Nubia to the south. Queen Hatshepsut and her successor Tuthmose III secured Egypt’s position as the first super power. Akhenaten and his wife Nefertiti occasioned the world’s first instance of monotheism.

Dynasty 18 pharaohs 

List of Dynasty XVIII Pharaohs

1549–1524 B.C.—Ahmose

1524–1503 B.C.—Amenhotep I

1503–1493 B.C.—Thutmose I

1493–1479 B.C.—Thutmose II

1479–1458 B.C.—Queen Hatshepsut 1479–1425 B.C.—Thutmose III

1425–1398 B.C.—Amenhotep II 

1398–1388 B.C.—Thutmose IV

1388–1350 B.C.—Amenhotep III

1351–1334 B.C.—Amenhotep IV (Akhenaten)

1334–1332 B.C.—Smenkhkare

1332–1323 B.C.—Tutankhamun

1323–1319 B.C.—Ay

1319–1292 B.C.—Horemheb

1479–1425 B.C.—Thutmose III

 

 

1351–1334 B.C.—Amenhotep IV (Akhenaten) The son of Amenhotep III and Tiye, Akhenaten

He was the father of Tutankhamen (by a lesser wife named Kiya) and Ankhsenamun, who was the wife and half-sister of Tutankhamen—her mother was Nefertiti.

 

In the beginning five years of his rule, he was referred to as Amenhotep IV. He continued his father’s legacy and adhered to Egypt’s polytheism. But then he went through a religious transformation; he forsook his cult of Amun and espoused the cult of Aten. He altered his name to Akhenaten, meaning ‘successful for’ or `of great use to’ the god Aten. And in the next twelve years of his rule his religious fixation led Egypt to a complete collapse.

Akhenaten’s rule is one of anarchy; it is often referred to as ‘The Amarna Period’ (1353-1336 B.C.). This was due to the fact that he changed the capital of the kingdom from Thebes to a city he established - Akhetaten, which later came to be known as Amarna. This was a capital dedicated to the god Aten. It can be argued that Akhenaten was a pharaoh that brought the dynasty to its nadir. The Amarna Period was fraught with turmoil. Akhenaten implemented reforms aimed at establishing a single and supreme god. He pursued a policy of erasing the worship of other gods besides Aten. The names of the other gods were chiseled from monuments, the ancient practices were banned and temples consecrated to other gods were shut down. This era was a stark contrast from the polytheistic and religiously tolerant Egypt. The Egyptologist Zahi Hawass writes: “Dating to this point in Akhenaten’s reign was a campaign to excise the name of gods other than the Aten, especially Amun, from the monuments of Egypt. This was done with violence: hieroglyphs were brutally hacked from the walls of temples and tombs. This was probably carried out, at least in part, by illiterate iconoclasts, presumably following the orders of their king. [Akhenaten] carried out a religious revolution the like of which had never been seen before in Egypt. His reign represents a significant departure from religious, artistic, and political norms (42-43).”

Akhenaten was notorious for his actions; in archival records, his successors referred to him as “heretic king”, "the enemy" or "that criminal". He remained an ambiguous entity in Egypt’s history until the finding of the city of Amarna in the 19th century.

1332–1323 B.C.—Tutankhamun Despite his short life, Tutankhamen (also known as Tutankhamun and “King Tut”) is one of the most renowned historical relics of our time. His golden sarcophagus is now an emblem almost indistinguishable from Egypt. The name Tutankhamen means `living image of [the god] Amun.’

 

During his time of ruling, Tutankhamen, with his elder counselors, made strides to collect the rags of Egypt that his father left behind. He re-established order, brought back the religion of Amun and repaired derelict temples.

 

Tutankhamen’s early death is a contentious topic among scholars. Some argue that the severe wound on his skull attest to his murder; others adduce his incestuous birth as a genesis of his early death. What can be asserted though is that Tutankhamen’s death sounded the Knell of the 18th dynasty.

 

The Nineteenth Dynasty Dynasty XIX (1292-1187 B.C.) was founded by Vizier Ramesses I; he was selected heir by the Pharaoh Horemheb. The 18th dynasty was unparalleled in power and thus was able to expand its dominion easily.

The dynasty is perhaps best known for its series of military conquests in Canaan.

The dynasty reached its peak during the reign of Seti I and Rameses II who spearheaded dynamic crusades against the Hittites and Libyans. The pharaohs of this dynasty were buried in Thebes in the Valley of Kings.

The dynasty reached its peak during the reign of Seti I and Rameses II who spearheaded dynamic crusades against the Hittites and Libyans.

Ramsses II was the third pharaoh of the dynasty. He is known to the Egyptians as Usermaatre Setepenre, meaning 'Keeper of Harmony and Balance, Strong in Right, Elect of Ra’. He is also known as Ozymandias and Ramesses the Great. Ramesses II is considered to be the greatest rulers of the New Kingdom. He commissioned Egypt’s many elaborate buildings of the time: the temples at Abu Simbel, the enormous tomb complex known as the Ramesseum at Thebes, the complex at Abydos, the hall at Karnak, the celebrated tomb of Nefertari –which was his first wife—and hundreds of other building. The period of his reign is seen as the zenith of Egyptian art.

RamessesII is also celebrated for his conquests aimed at reclaiming territories of Levant that had been controlled by the eighteenth dynasty. His campaigns culminated to the Battle of Kadesh (1274 B.C.), fought between him and the Hittite king Muwatalli II. Karnak temple, by Karelj (2010) The pharaoh had the longest reign—he died at the age of 96. So long was his rule that when he died the Egyptian people feared the world would come to a devastating end. He later came to be known by the posterity as‘The Great Ancestor’.  Ramesses II had over two hundred wives and concubines from whom he bore sixty daughters and ninety-six sons. He outlived most of his children.

During the 19th Dynasty, Egypt had enjoyed an unprecedented affluence which had allured the Sea Peoples (they’re origin is unknown but they are believed to have come from the Aegean area). They had demolished the Hittite empire and now had their eyes glued on Egypt’s wealth. Although the Sea Peoples had attempted incursions earlier, Ramesses II had successfully kept them at bay. However, after his death, they managed to ransack Kadesh—then a territory of Egypt—and destroy the coast. Ramesses III engaged in a fierce battle between1180-1178 B.C., until he finally conquered them in the Battle of Xois in 1178 B.C.

 

The Twentieth Dynasty After usurping power from Queen Tausret (Twosret), Senakhte (1189–1186 B.C.) founded the 20th Dynasty (1189 to 1077 B.C.). His time of reign lasted for three years only and was immediately succeeded by his son Rameses III who was to be Egypt’s last great king.

 

After the rule of Ramesses III, Egypt was plagued by a legion of predicaments: a series of draughts, famine, below-normal flooding scales of the Nile, civil unrests and much besides. There followed a succession of kings named Ramesses; this was perhaps an attempt to redeem the past glories of Egypt.

 

The administration also faced a resistance from the populace of Egypt, namely those from the colonies. The clergy was another thorn to the central administration. After Tutankhamen restored the religion of Amun, the priests of Amun had grown very affluent and had appropriated massive land. They were a threat to the administration; their corruption led to the decay of social cohesion and the central government. By the time Rameses XI (1107–1077 B.C.)had ascended to power, the clergy had gotten so powerful that the High Priests of Amun at Thebes were governing the south as de facto rulers; this among other things occasioned the collapse of the 20th Dynasty and ushered in a new era known as the Third Intermediate Period (1069–664 B.C.) followed.

 

End of Ancient Egypt 

 

 

Dynasty 18 pharaohs 

List of Dynasty XVIII Pharaohs

1549–1524 B.C.—Ahmose

1524–1503 B.C.—Amenhotep I

1503–1493 B.C.—Thutmose I

1493–1479 B.C.—Thutmose II

1479–1458 B.C.—Queen Hatshepsut 1479–1425 B.C.—Thutmose III

1425–1398 B.C.—Amenhotep II 

1398–1388 B.C.—Thutmose IV

1388–1350 B.C.—Amenhotep III

1351–1334 B.C.—Amenhotep IV (Akhenaten)

1334–1332 B.C.—Smenkhkare

1332–1323 B.C.—Tutankhamun

1323–1319 B.C.—Ay

1319–1292 B.C.—Horemheb

1479–1425 B.C.—Thutmose III

 

 

 

Dynasty 19 pharaohs 

List of Dynasty XIX Pharaohs

1292–1290 B.C.—Rameses I

1290–1279 B.C.—Seti I

 

1279–1213 B.C.—Ramesses II

1213–1203 B.C.—Merenptah

1203–1197 B.C.—Seti II

1203–1197 B.C.—Amenmessu

1197–1191 B.C.—Saptah

 

1191–1189 B.C.—Queen Tausret (Twosret)

 

Dynasty 20 pharaohs 

 

The List of the Rulers of Dynasty XX

1189–1186 B.C.—Setnakht

 

1186–1155 B.C.—Rameses III

 

1155–1149 B.C.—Rameses IV

1149–1145 B.C.—Rameses V

1145–1137 B.C.—Rameses VI

1137–1130 B.C.—Rameses VII

1130–1129 B.C.—Rameses VIII

1129–1111 B.C.—Rameses IX

1111–1107 B.C. Rameses X

 

1107–1077 B.C.—Rameses XI

 

In the period from 1070 B.C. onwards, under the 21st dynasty, Egypt was split into two: the northern part of the region was governed by the pharaoh and the south by the High Priests of Amun at Thebes. This disturbed the nation’s unity.

 

1085-664 B.C.—The Third Intermediate Period Third Intermediate Period (1085-664 B.C.) lasted for about 400 years. Egypt saw political, social and cultural revolutions. During the 21st Dynasty there was a rebellion carried out by local officials; Egypt was also invaded by foreign forces from Nubia and Libya who reigned over certain areas and stamped their culture on the society. The period of the 22nd Dynasty, which began around 945 B.C., was founded by King Sheshonq I. He was a Libyan descendant who had conquered Egypt during the ruling days of the 20th Dynasty. In this era, the local rulers were autonomous. Dynasties 23 and 24 were poorly documented. The Nubian ruler of the kingdom of Kush, King Piye (752-722 B.C.) founded Dynasty 25. Egypt was once again united and the culture flourished. But it wasn’t for long, as the Assyrians under Esarhaddon set out to invade the country in 667 B.C. The Assyrians did manage a successful invasion but had no long-term plans to remain in the region. They left Egypt in ruins and vulnerable to the imminent invasion.

 

664–30 B.C.—The Late and Hellenistic Period

 

Cambyses II of Persia attacked the defenseless Egypt at the Pelusium in 525 B.C. His approach was a rather ingenious one. Having insight into the religion of the Egyptian people, he had his army paint cats on their shields. This was because he knew that cats were believed to be the living representation of the goddess Bastet by the Egyptians. He also ordered for cats and other sacred animals to be driven before the army at Pelusium. Cambyses II was able to defeat the last kings of the Saite dynasty Psammetichus III (he was the son of Nechoa) at the battle of Battle of Pelusium. Egypt became a constituent of the Persian Empire. Persian rulers respected the Egyptian religion and culture; leaders such as Darius (522-485 B.C.) upheld Egyptian cults, built and restored temples. Xerxes (486-465 B.C.), however, was a despotic leader who sparked rebellions that extended to the reign of his successors. In 404 B.C., one of these rebellions became a successful one. This triumph ushered in the last period of native Egyptian rule, Dynasties 28-30.

This period was abbreviated by another attack of Persia in the mid-fourth century. Under Ataxerxes III in 343 B.C., Persia was able to restore its power in Egypt. However, in less than a decade the army of Alexander the Great of Macedonia was able to defeat the Persian force and conquer Egypt in 332-331 B.C.

Alexander was never seen as a conqueror; rather he was seen as a liberator. He instituted the city of Alexandria before moving on his pursuit of Phoenicia and the whole of the Persian Empire. After his death, Egypt was governed by a line of Macedonian kings—Alexander’s general Ptolemy being the first. Cleopatra VII was the last of the Ptolemaic rulers. Her defeat by the Octavian forces in the Battle of Actium on 2nd September, 30 B.C., led to Egypt’s annexation by the Roman Empire. As a Roman colony, Christianity became the predominant religion of Egypt and the people were forced to forsake their indigenous cults. Following the six centuries of rule by the Romans, Egypt was invaded by the Arabs under Caliph Umar in 646 A.D. and Islam was brought to the nation. In discussing Ancient Egypt’s fascinating history, the Historian Will Durant writes: “The effect or remembrance of what Egypt accomplished at the very dawn of history has influence in every nation and every age. ‘It is even possible', as Faure has said, 'that Egypt, through the solidarity, the unity, and the disciplined variety of its artistic products, through the enormous duration and the sustained power of its effort, offers the spectacle of the greatest civilization that has yet appeared on the earth.' We shall do well to equal it.”

Edited June 28, 2019 by Preety_India

[Preety_India]

Egyptian mythology 

Often in Egyptian writing and art, myths occur— particularly in short stories and in religious materials such as ritual texts, hymns, funerary texts and temple decorations.  Full accounts of the myth from these sources are rare as they are habitually described in brief fragments.

According to the historian Bunsen: “Heh, called Huh in some eras, was one of the original gods of the Ogdoad [the eight deities worshipped during the Old Kingdom, 2575-2134 BCE] at Hermopolis and represented eternity – the goal and destiny of all human life in Egyptian religious beliefs, a stage of existence in which mortals could attain everlasting bliss .”

 

 

The existence of someone on this earth was a part of the eternal journey; it was also an introduction to something bigger. The concept of the afterlife for Egyptians was a mirror-world of one’s life on earth

— particularly, one’s life in Egypt.  If one desired to enjoy the rest of his/her eternal journey, he was obliged to live that life correctly. The Creation of the World The creation of the universe and the world out of whirling chaos and obscurity was where the journey commenced. There was once nothing but infinite dark water, devoid of form or purpose. From this bedlam surfaced Ben-Ben (the primeval hill); atop of this hill lived Atum (sometimes, Ptah). Atum observed the emptiness and realized his loneliness. He bred with his shadow to produce two offspring: Tefnut (goddess of moisture, whom Atum vomited out) and Shu (god of air, whom Atum spat out). The principles of order were issued by Tefnut and the principles of life were given by Shu. After they were born, the siblings set out to create the world, leaving their father on the Ben-Ben. After a while, Atum was overwhelmed by anxiety as his children took a long time to return. He took out his one eye and sent it to look for them. Much to his relief, Shu and Tefnut returned after some time with his one eye; Atum, grateful for his children’s return, shed tears of happiness. His tears rained atop the dark and fertile soil of Ben-Ben, thereby producing women and men. The sun rises over the circular mound of creation as goddesses pour out the primeval waters around it (1075–945 BC) These early beings had no place to dwell, however. Tefnut and Shu, thus, mated and bore the goddess Nut (the Sky) and the god Geb (the earth). The siblings, Geb and Nut, became lovers, inseparable from one another. Unable to accept their unacceptable behavior, Atum took Nut into the heavens, far away from Geb. Both lovers had clear views of one another; however, they were unable to touch. Already impregnated by Geb, Nut gave birth to Set, Osiris, Isis and Nephthys— the prominent Egyptian gods. Osiris was often considered a sensible and thoughtful god which was probably why Atum gave him rule over the world. Sources Enjoyable tales and solemn hymns constitute the sources of Egyptian mythology. Illiteracy amongst Egyptians of the time was prevalent, so it was mostly the tradition of storytelling that spread the myths. It is suggested by some that this tradition of storytelling explains why little detail of the myths exist—every Egyptian knew about the myths. Evidence showing the survival of this oral tradition is precious little and it is pictorial and written sources that furnish the modern knowledge of Egyptian myths. Only few of these sources managed to survive to current times as many of the writings have been lost.

 

 

 

 

Edited June 28, 2019 by Preety_India

[Preety_India]

Gods of ancient Egypt 

The gods held great leverage over the daily lives of the ancient Egyptian society. They were the creators of the cosmos and the ones that set order. The gods and goddesses had a cult of their own; rituals as well as sacrifices were held for them.

Isis Isis (Egyptian Aset or Eset) was the eldest daughter of Geb and Nut. She had four siblings, Osiris, Seth, Nephthys and Haroeris. She was both the sibling and wife of Osiris, from whom she bore Horus. Her other offspring were Bastet and probably Ammit.

 

As a bereaved soul, she was associated with funeral rituals; as a sorceress, she cured the ill and brought the dead back to life and as the ideal mother she was an exemplar of all Egyptian women.

Each God both animal and non animal are associated with a legend. 

The list of Gods 

Isis 

Osiris 

1. Nun – The primordial Egyptian god associated with the watery mass that is the source of all aspects of divine and earthly existence.

2. Amun-Ra – The combination of two Egyptian deities Amun and Ra, thereby symbolizing the invisible force of wind and the visible majesty of the sun.

3. Hathor – The benevolent Egyptian ‘Cow’ goddess associated with matters of womanly love and health.

4. Bastet/Sekhmet – Bastet was venerated as the benevolent Egyptian ‘Cat’ goddess of love, fertility, joy, dance, women, and secrets. Sekhmet, her alter-ego, was invoked as the warrior lioness deity who protected the Pharaohs.

5. Maat – The Egyptian goddess of truth, justice, and, the cosmic order.

6. Ptah – The Egyptian creator god with his life-giving ability – regarded as the patron deity of sculptors, painters, builders, and other artisans.

7. Isis – The Egyptian goddess venerated as the divine mother of the kings and often associated with magic.

8. Osiris – The Egyptian ‘Dead’ god regarded as the lord and judge of the underworld.

9. Horus – The Egyptian ‘Falcon’ god associated with the sky and warfare.

10. Set – The Egyptian deity representing darkness, often associated with eclipses, storms, and thunders.

11. Anubis – The Egyptian ‘Jackal’ god, regarded as the protector of graves, guide of souls in the afterlife, and patron deity of embalmers.

12. Thoth – The Egyptian ‘Ibis’ god associated with writing, magic, wisdom, and the moon.

13. Taweret – The Egyptian ‘Hippo’ goddess regarded as the divine protector of women and children and associated with childbirth.

14. Aten – An Egyptian monotheistic god personifying the disc of the sun.

15. Khepri – The Egyptian ‘Beetle’ god often perceived as the personification of the morning sun.

.

AMUN-Ra “The Hidden One” ...

MUT “The Mother Goddess” ...

OSIRIS “The King of Living” ...

ANUBIS “The Divine Embalmer” ...

RA “The God of Sun & Radiance” ...

HORUS “God of Vengeance” ...

THOTH “God of Knowledge and Wisdom” ...

HATHOR “Goddess of Motherhood”

 

 

 

 

Edited June 28, 2019 by Preety_India

[Preety_India]

Minor deities of Egypt 

MaleEdit

Aani - A protector ape headed god[57]

Aati - One of the 42 judges of the souls of the dead[57]

Abu - A god of light[57]

Am-heh – A dangerous underworld god[58]

Amenhotep I (Amenhetep I) - The second king of the eighteenth dynasty, deified[59]

Amenhotep son of Hapu – A scribe and architect in the court of Amenhotep III, later deified for his wisdom[58]

Amu-Aa - A god who accompanies Osiris during the second hour of the night[57]

An-a-f - One of the 42 judges of the souls of the dead[57]

An-hetep-f - One of the 42 judges of the souls of the dead[57]

An-mut-f[57]

An-tcher-f[57]

Andjety (Anedjti, Anezti) - A god of the ninth nome of Upper Egypt[60]

Ȧnḥert - A bearded sky god[61]

Ani - A god of festivals[57]

Anti - A hawk god of Upper Egypt[62]

Apedemak – A warlike lion god from Nubiawho appears in some Egyptian-built temples in Lower Nubia[63]

Apep (Apepi) – A serpent deity who personified malevolent chaos and was said to fight Ra in the underworld every night[64]

Āpesh - A turtle god[65]

Apis – A live bull worshipped as a god at Memphis and seen as a manifestation of Ptah[66]

Arensnuphis – A Nubian deity who appears in Egyptian temples in Lower Nubia in the Greco-Roman era[67]

Asclepius - A Greek god worshipped in Egypt at Saqqara

Ash – A god of the Libyan Desert and oases west of Egypt[68]

Astennu - A baboon god associated with Thoth.

Ba - A god of fertility[69]

Ba-Ra[57]

Baal – Sky and storm god from Syria and Canaan, worshipped in Egypt during the New Kingdom[70]

Babi – A baboon god characterized by sexuality and aggression[71]

Banebdjedet – A ram god, patron of the city of Mendes[72]

Ba-Pef – A little-known underworld deity[73]

Bes – Apotropaic god, represented as a dwarf, particularly important in protecting children and women in childbirth[74]

Buchis – A live bull god worshipped in the region around Thebes and a manifestation of Montu[75]

Dedun (Dedwen)– A Nubian god, said to provide the Egyptians with incense and other resources that came from Nubia[76]

Denwen - A serpent and dragon god[62]

Djebuty - Tutelary god of Djeba[77]

Djefa - God of abundance[78]

Dua - God of toiletry and sanitation[69]

Fa - A god of destiny[57]

Fetket - A butler of Ra[5]

Gengen Wer - A celestial goose god who guarded the celestial egg containing the life force[62]

Ha – A god of the Libyan Desert and oases west of Egypt[10]

Ḥapy (Hapi) - A son of Horus[79]

Hapy-Wet - God of the Nile in heaven[57]

Hardedef - Son of King Khufu who was deified after death because he wrote a book considered to be the work of a god[62]

Harmachis (Heru-em-akbet) - Sphinx god[57]

Harsomtus - A child god of Edfu[80]

Haurun - A protector and healing god, originally a Canaanite god[62]

Heka (Hike) – Personification of magic[81]

Heneb - A god of grain[57]

Henkhisesui - God of the east wind[57]

Heru-Khu - A god in the fifth division of Tuat[57]

Hery-sha-duat - Underworld god in charge of the fields of Tuat[57]

Heryshaf – Ram god worshipped at Herakleopolis Magna[82]

Hu – Personification of the authority of the spoken word[83]

Iah (Aah) – A moon god[84]

Ihy – A child deity born to Horus and Hathor, representing the music and joy produced by the sistrum[85]

Ihu - God of the sistrum[69]

Imhotep – Architect and vizier to Djoser, eventually deified as a healer god[86]

Ishtar – The East Semitic version of Astarte, occasionally mentioned in Egyptian texts[87]

Joh - A moon god[69]

Jupiter-Amun - A Roman influenced god worshipped at the Siwa Oasis in Egypt[62]

Kagemni - A vizier to Sneferu who wrote the Instructions of Kagemni, later deified[62]

Khenmu (Khnum) - A ram headed god who formed humans from clay[62]

Khenti-Amenti[57]

Khenti-qerer[57]

Khesfu - A god who carries a spear in the tenth division of Tuat[57]

Khentamentiu (Chontamenti) - A necropolis deity[88]

Khentekhtai (Khente-Khtai) - Crocodile god worshipped at Athribis[62]

Kherty – A netherworld god, usually depicted as a ram[89]

Kneph - A ram creator god[69]

Mahes (Maahes) - A punishing god[69]

Mandulis – A Lower Nubian solar deity who appeared in some Egyptian temples[90]

Mehen – A serpent god who protects the barque of Ra as it travels through the underworld[91]

Mestȧ (Imset)- A son of Horus[79]

Mihos - A son of Bastet[5]

Min – A god of virility, as well as the cities of Akhmim and Qift and the Eastern Desertbeyond them[92]

Mnevis – A live bull god worshipped at Heliopolis as a manifestation of Ra[93]

Nefer Hor - A son of Thoth[57]

Neferhotep - Son of Hathor[80]

Nefertum (Nefertem) - God of perfume who was an aspect of Atum, but later became a separate deity[62]

Nehebu-Kau – A protective serpent god[94]

Nūn - God of the primeval waters[95]

Panebtawy - A child god, son of Horus the Elder[5]

Petbe - God of revenge[69]

Peteese - Brother of Pihor who drowned in the Nile, later deified[62]

Pihor - Brother of Peteese who drowned in the Nile, later deified[62]

Ptah-hotep - Writer of a Wisdom Text, later deified[62]

Qebeḥsenuf (Qebehsenuef) - A son of Horus[79]

Qebui - God of the north winds[57]

Ra-ateni[57]

Rā-Ḥerakhty - A beautiful god[96]

Reshep – A Syrian war god adopted into Egyptian religion in the New Kingdom[97]

Reshpu - A bearded god wearing a crown resembling the crown of Upper Egypt[98]

Sah - Personification of the constellation Orion[62]

Sebeg - Personification of the planet Mercury[99]

Sebiumeker - Guardian god of procreation and fertility, he was a major god in Meroe, Kush[62]

Sed - A jackal deity who protected kingship[62]

Seker – God of the Memphite Necropolisand of the afterlife in general[100]

Sekhemus - God of the fourth hour of Tuat[57]

Sepa - A centipede god who protected people from snake bites[62]

Sepes - A god who lived in a tree[57]

Sepṭu - A bearded plume wearing god[98]

Serapis – A Greco-Egyptian god from the Ptolemaic Period who fused traits of Osiris and Apis with those of several Greek gods. Husband of Isis who, like her, was adopted into Greek and Roman religion outside Egypt.[101]

Seta-Ta - A mummified god in the fourth division of Tuat[57]

Setcheh - A serpent demon[57]

Setem - A god of healing[57]

Shed – A god believed to save people from danger and misfortune[102]

Shehbui - God of the south wind

Shezmu – A god of wine and oil presses who also slaughters condemned souls[103]

Sia – Personification of perception[104]

Sopd - God of the eastern delta[99]

Sothis - Personification of the star Sirius, mother of Sopdu[62]

Ṭuamutef (Duamutef) - A son of Horus[79]

Tutu – An apotropaic god from the Greco-Roman era[105]

Uneg/Weneg – A plant god and son of Ra who maintains cosmic order[28][69]

Wenenu - A protector god[62]

Wepwawet – A jackal god, the patron deity of Asyut, connected with warfare and the afterlife[106]

Yah - A moon god[5]

Yam – A Syrian god of the sea who appears in some Egyptian texts[107]

FemaleEdit

Ahti - A malevolent hippopotamus goddess[108]

Amathaunta - An ocean goddess[69]

Ament (Amentet) - Daughter of Horus and Hathor, a goddess of Underworld hospitality[69]

Ammit – Goddess who devoured condemned souls[109]

Amn - A goddess who welcomed souls of the dead in the Underworld[69]

Anat – A war and fertility goddess, originally from Syria, who entered Egyptian religion in the Middle Kingdom[110]

Anhefta - A protective spirit who guards one end of the ninth division of Tuat[57]

Anit - Wife of Andjety[69]

Ānqet - A feathered headdress wearing goddess worshipped at the First Cataract[61]

Āntȧ - A daughter of Ra[61]

Antd - A sister of Astarte[111]

Anuke - A war goddess[62]

Ảpet - A solar disc wearing goddess worshipped at Thebes[61]

Astarte – A warrior goddess from Syria and Canaan who entered Egyptian religion in the New Kingdom[112]

Ausaas - A solar disc wearing goddess worshipped at Heliopolis[113]

Ba'alat Gebal – A Caananite goddess, patroness of the city of Byblos, adopted into Egyptian religion[114]

Besna - Goddess of home security[69]

Esna - A divine perch[62]

Hatmehit – Fish goddess worshipped at Mendes[52]

Hedetet – A minor scorpion goddess[115]

Heptet - A knife holding goddess of death[57]

Heret-Kau - A protector goddess who protected the souls of the dead in the afterlife[62]

Hert-ketit-s - A lioness headed goddess in the eleventh division of Tuat[57]

Hert-Nemmat-Set - A goddess in the eleventh division of Tuat who punishes the damned[57]

Hert-sefu-s - A goddess in the eleventh division of Tuat[57]

Heru-pa-kaut - A mother goddess with a fish on her head[57]

Hesat - A cow goddess, possibly mother of the Mnevis bull[57]

Heset - Goddess of food and drink[62]

Hetepes-Sekhus - A personification of the eye of Ra, also a cobra goddess[62]

Horea - The wife of Set[57]

Iat – A goddess of milk and nursing[116]

Iabet - Goddess of fertility and rebirth[62]

Ipy - A mother goddess depicted as a hippopotamus[62]

Iusaaset – A female counterpart to Atum[117]

Iw - A creation goddess[62]

Kabechet - Daughter of Anubis, she helps him in mummifying dead bodies[5]

Kebehut - Goddess of freshness[57]

Ken - Goddess of love[69]

Khefthernebes - A funerary deity[118]

Mafdet – A predatory goddess said to destroy dangerous creatures[119]

Mehit – A lioness goddess, consort of Anhur[38]

Matit – A funerary cat goddess who had a cult center at Thinis[120]

Mehet-Weret – A celestial cow goddess[91]

Mekhit - A warrior goddess originally from Nubia worshipped at Abydos[62]

Meḥt-urt (Mehturt) - Goddess of the sky[121]

Menhit (Menhyt) - A solar lioness goddess who personified the brow of Ra[62]

Meretseger – A cobra goddess who oversaw the Theban Necropolis[122]

Merit - The goddess of music who established cosmic order[62]

Meskhenet (Mesenet) – A goddess who presided over childbirth[15]

Nakith - A goddess of the underworld[123]

Nebethetepet – A female counterpart to Atum[17]

Nebt-Ankhiu - A goddess of the underworld[124]

Nebt-Khu - A goddess of the underworld[124]

Nebt-Mat - A goddess of the underworld[124]

Nebt-Setau - A goddess of the underworld[124]

Nebt-Shat - A goddess of the underworld[124]

Nebt-Shefshefet - A goddess of the underworld[124]

Nefertȧry - The mother of Amenhotep I, deified[59]

Nehmetawy – A minor goddess, the consort of Nehebu-Kau or Thoth[125]

Nu

Pelican - Goddess of the dead[99]

Perit - A goddess of the underworld[126]

Pesi - A goddess of the underworld[126]

Qebhet - A goddess who offered water to the souls of the dead[62]

Qererti[57]

Qerhet - Goddess of the eight nomes of Lower Egypt[57]

Qetesh (Qudshu) – A goddess of sexuality and sacred ecstasy from Syria and Canaan, adopted into Egyptian religion in the New Kingdom[127]

Raet-Tawy – A female counterpart to Ra[128]

Rekhit - A goddess of the underworld[129]

Renenet - Goddess of fortune[69]

Renpet – Goddess who personified the year[128]

Sait - A goddess of the underworld[130]

Satet - Goddess of the flood[5]

Sefkhet-Abwy - Goddess of writing and temple libraries[5]

Sehith - A goddess of the underworld[131]

Sekhat-Hor - A cow goddess[99]

Sekhet-Metu - A goddess of the underworld[131]

Seret - A lioness goddess possibly originally from Libya[62]

Serket – A scorpion goddess, invoked for healing and protection[132]

Sesenet-Khu - A goddess of the underworld[133]

Seshat – Goddess of writing and record-keeping, depicted as a scribe[134]

Shemat-Khu - A goddess of the underworld[135]

Shentayet - A protective goddess possibly of widows[62]

Shenty - A cow goddess[136]

Shesmetet – A lioness goddess[102]

Sopdet – Deification of the star Sirius[137]

Swenet - Goddess related to Aswan[138]

Ta-Bitjet – A minor scorpion goddess[55]

Ta-Sent-Nefert - A wife of Horus the elder [57]

Tafner - A vulture headdress wearing goddess[139]

Taweret – Hippopotamus goddess, protector of women in childbirth[140]

Tayt (Tayet) - Goddess of weaving[141][142]

Temet - A female counterpart to Atum[143]

Temtith - A goddess of the underworld[144]

Tenenet - Goddess of brewing[62]

Themath - A goddess of the underworld[144]

Thermuthis - Goddess of fate, fertility, and harvest[145]

Thmei - Goddess of truth[146]

Thoeris - A protector goddess[69]

Tjenenyet - A protector goddess[62]

Tjenmyt - Goddess of beer[99]

Unut – A goddess represented as a snake or a hare, worshipped in the region of Hermopolis[147]

Usit - A goddess of the underworld[148]

Wepset - A protector serpent goddess[62]

Werethekau – A goddess who protected the king[149]

Male or femaleEdit

Hedjhotep - God of fabrics and clothing[141]

Shai – Personification of fate[150]

Semi - A deified object found in the tenth division of Tuat[57]

 

 

[Preety_India]

Groups of deitiesEdit

The Aai – 3 guardian deities in the ninth division of Tuat; they are Ab-ta, Anhefta, and Ermen-ta[57]

The Cavern deities – Many underworld deities charged with punishing the damned souls by beheading and devouring them.[178]

The Ennead – An extended family of nine deities produced by Atum during the creation of the world. The Ennead usually consisted of Atum, his children Shu and Tefnut, their children Geb and Nut, and their children Osiris, Isis, Set, and Nephthys.[179]

The four sons of Horus – Four gods who protected the mummified body, particularly the internal organs in canopic jars.[180]

The Gate deities – Many dangerous guardian deities at the gates of the underworld (flanked by divine Doorkeepers and Heralds), to be ingratiated by spells and knowing their names.[181]

The Hemsut (or Hemuset) – Protective goddesses of Fate, destiny, and of the creation sprung from the primordial abyss; daughters of Ptah, linked to the concept of ka[182][183]

The Her-Hequi – 4 deities in the fifth division of Tuat[57]

The Hours of the day deities – 12 divine embodiments of each hour of the day: partly major deities (1st: Maat, 7th: Horus) and partly lesser known ones (12th: "The One Who Gives Protection In The Twilight").[184]

The Hours of the night deities – 12 goddesses of each hour of the night, wearing a five-pointed star on their heads.[184]

The 42 judges of Maat – 42 deities including Osiris who judged the souls of the dead in the afterlife

The Khnemiu – 4 deities wearing red crowns in the eleventh division of Tuat[57]

The Ogdoad – A set of eight gods who personified the chaos that existed before creation. The Ogdoad commonly consisted of Amun, Amunet, Nu, Naunet, Heh, Hauhet, Kuk, and Kauket.[185]

The Renniu – 4 bearded gods in the eleventh division of Tuat[57]

The Setheniu-Tep – 4 deities wearing white crowns in the eleventh division of Tuat[57]

The Souls of Pe and Nekhen – A set of gods personifying the predynastic rulers of Upper and Lower Egypt.[186]

The 12 Thoueris goddesses[153]

[Preety_India]

Another rivalry was Apep (or Apophis), the god of chaos. He was Ra's arch-nemesis. He dwelled just below the horizon line and would swallow Ra every time he made his way to the Underworld. When he would swallow Ra, the sun would set and when he would completely devour him, night would come. Fortunately, he would fall by the wayside as he would always spit out Ra. This leads to sun rise.

[Preety_India]

MaleEdit

Aker – A god of the earth and the horizon[2]

Amun – A creator god, patron deity of the city of Thebes, and the preeminent deity in Egypt during the New Kingdom[3]

Anhur – A god of war and hunting[4][5]

Aten – Sun disk deity who became the focus of the monolatrous or monotheistic Atenist belief system in the reign of Akhenaten[6]

Atum – A creator god and solar deity, first god of the Ennead[7]

Bennu – A solar and creator deity, depicted as a bird[8]

Geb – An earth god and member of the Ennead[9]

Hapi – Personification of the Nile flood[10]

Horus – A major god, usually shown as a falcon or as a human child, linked with the sky, the sun, kingship, protection, and healing. Often said to be the son of Osiris and Isis.[11]

Khepri – A solar creator god, often treated as the morning form of Ra and represented by a scarab beetle[12]

Khnum (Khnemu) – A ram god, the patron deity of Elephantine, who was said to control the Nile flood and give life to gods and humans[13]

Khonsu – A moon god, son of Amun and Mut[14]

Maahes – A lion god, son of Bastet[15]

Montu – A god of war and the sun, worshipped at Thebes[16]

Nefertum – God of the lotus blossom from which the sun god rose at the beginning of time. Son of Ptah and Sekhmet.[17]

Nemty – Falcon god, worshipped in Middle Egypt,[18] who appears in myth as a ferryman for greater gods[19]

Neper – A god of grain[20]

Osiris – god of death and resurrection who rules the underworld and enlivens vegetation, the sun god, and deceased souls[21]

Ptah – A creator deity and god of craftsmen, the patron god of Memphis[22]

Ra – The sun god

Set – An ambivalent god, characterized by violence, chaos, and strength, connected with the desert. Mythological murderer of Osiris and enemy of Horus, but also a supporter of the king.[23]

Shu – Embodiment of wind or air, a member of the Ennead[24]

Sobek – Crocodile god, worshipped in the Faiyum and at Kom Ombo[25]

Sopdu – A god of the sky and of Egypt's eastern border regions[26]

Thoth – A moon god, and a god of writing and scribes, and patron deity of Hermopolis[27]

Wadj-wer – Personification of the Mediterranean sea or lakes of the Nile Delta[28]

FemaleEdit

Amunet – Female counterpart of Amun and a member of the Ogdoad[2]

Anuket – A goddess of Egypt's southern frontier regions, particularly the lower cataracts of the Nile[29]

Bastet – Goddess represented as a cat or lioness, patroness of the city of Bubastis, linked with protection from evil[30]

Bat – Cow goddess from early in Egyptian history, eventually absorbed by Hathor[31]

Hathor – One of the most important goddesses, linked with the sky, the sun, sexuality and motherhood, music and dance, foreign lands and goods, and the afterlife. One of many forms of the Eye of Ra.[32]

Heqet – Frog goddess said to protect women in childbirth[33]

Hesat – A maternal cow goddess[34]

Imentet – An afterlife goddess closely linked with Isis and Hathor[35]

Isis – Wife of Osiris and mother of Horus, linked with funerary rites, motherhood, protection, and magic. She became a major deity in Greek and Roman religion.[36]

Maat – Goddess who personified truth, justice, and order[37]

Menhit – A lioness goddess[38]

Mut – Consort of Amun, worshipped at Thebes[39]

Neith – A creator and hunter goddess, patron of the city of Sais in Lower Egypt[40]

Nekhbet (Nekhebit) – A vulture goddess, the tutelary deity of Upper Egypt[41]

Nephthys (Neb-t kha-t) – A member of the Ennead, the consort of Set, who mourned Osiris alongside Isis[42]

Nepit – A goddess of grain, female counterpart of Neper[43]

Nut – A sky goddess, a member of the Ennead[44]

Pakhet – A lioness goddess mainly worshipped in the area around Beni Hasan[45]

Renenutet – An agricultural goddess[46]

Satet – A goddess of Egypt's southern frontier regions[47]

Sekhmet – A lioness goddess, both destructive and violent and capable of warding off disease, protector of the pharaohs who led them in war, the consort of Ptah and one of many forms of the Eye of Ra.[48]

Tefnut – Goddess of moisture and a member of the Ennead[49]

Wadjet (Uatchit) – A cobra goddess, the tutelary deity of Lower Egypt[50]

Wosret – A goddess of Thebes[51]

 

 

[Preety_India]

Both male and female formsEdit

Heh – Personification of infinity and a member of the Ogdoad[52]

Kek – The god of Chaos and Darkness, as well as being the concept of primordial darkness. Kek's female form is known as Kauket.

Nu – Personification of the formless, watery disorder from which the world emerged at creation and a member of the Ogdoad[53]

Ra (Re) – The foremost Egyptian sun god, involved in creation and the afterlife. Mythological ruler of the gods, father of every Egyptian king, and the patron god of Heliopolis.[54]

Tatenen – Personification of the first mound of earth to emerge from chaos in ancient Egyptian creation myths[55]

Anubis/Anput – The god/goddess of embalming and protector of the dead[56]

[Preety_India]

here were a lot of beliefs in ancient Egypt and most of them revolved around life, death and the afterlife.

 

The first kinds of obituary writing in Egypt were Pyramid Texts, which were inscribed on the walls of burial chamber in pyramids. Pyramid texts, which included several figures representing humans and animals, were purposed to protect and help dead kings pass on to the afterlife safely. And the first of this kind of writing was used in the pyramid of King Unas, during the 24th century B.C.

Then during the reign of the Middle Kingdom, Pyramid texts evolved to what is called Coffin Texts. The contents of the Coffin Text had much similarity to that of the Pyramid Text. But there certainly were obvious discrepancies; one was that this new form of funerary text was inscribed on the interiors of a coffin, sometimes on Papyri or the walls of a tomb, but mostly on the surface of coffins; secondly, unlike the Pyramid Texts, which were used only by the royals and the elite; the Coffin Text was available for the commoners as well.

Then with the rise of the New kingdom around 1550 B.C., Egyptian writing and funerary tradition underwent yet another telling evolution, which was marked by the surfacing of the ‘Book of the Dead.’

 

The Book of the Dead is a funerary scripture aimed at facilitating an easy and safe navigation through the Duat (the Underworld) for the dead.  It was also believed that this entity would enable the deceased to get help and protection from the Gods during this challenging journey.

It is basically a collection of spells, some were new but most of them were collected from the Pyramid Texts and Coffin Texts. It was written on a papyrus commissioned by the individual before death or by a relative. The quality of the papyri and the texts differed tremendously, and it all depended upon the individual’s financial standing. Papyri were very expensive during that period and only the royals or the elite were able to afford it. There was even a point where archeologists discovered a Book of the Dead written on a second-hand papyrus.

The Book of the Dead, at certain occasions, would be written on linen shrouds, which would be used to wrap the dead bodies.

Often times, the illustrations included the image of the deceased’s wife; but drawing of vicious lions, crocodiles, snakes, beetles and hippopotamus were also quite common.

Each Book of the Dead was unique and different. There was no order or pattern in the way the chapters of the Book of the Dead were arranged. The illustrations, the texts, the spells were all developed in a way that’s to satisfy the preference of the deceased or their relatives.

 

So far about 192 spells used in ancient Egypt and in the Book of the Dead are known. But there isn’t a single Book of the Dead that contains all these spells, and if there is, it hasn’t yet been found then.

 

The greatest and most explicit relic of this funerary tradition that has survived for this long and still is in a good condition is The Papyrus of Ani – a legacy of ancient Egypt and one that is currently situated in The British Museum, London.

life for ancient Egyptians was just a segment, a very small part of the eternal journey that awaited them after death. Bunsen, the historian, argues that ancient Egyptians believed that human life, its goal and purpose, was to simply serve as a phase of life through which one could acquire eternal happiness offered in life after death. But to accomplish a harmonious eternal journey one must live a good and just life here on earth.

 

Death Death in Egyptian mythology doesn’t quite necessarily mean the end. It is viewed as the moment when the soul parts from the body and is brought before Osiris in the “Hall of Truth” for the final judgment. The god Anubis is said to be the one who escorts the soul to Osiris. However, before the soul stands to face Osiris and the final judgment, he or she must first pass through a series of gates and caverns that are infiltrated and guarded by mystical creatures that are vicious and will do whatever is possible to stop the passer-by. And to pacify these ferocious beings the deceased would use the spells in his or her Book of the Dead.

 

Spell 31 used to stop the attack of crocodiles And if the deceased manages to circumvent all the obstacles and passes through all the challenges, then he/she will be escorted to the Hall of Truth.  In the Hall of Truth, the deceased would then be asked to swear that he/she did not commit the forty-two sins, which are also known as the “Negative Confession.”

Here are some of the sins on the list: I have not committed sin. I have not committed robbery with violence. I have not stolen. I have not slain men and women. I have not stolen grain. I have not purloined offerings. I have not stolen the property of the gods. I have not uttered lies. I have not carried away food. I have not uttered curses. I have not committed adultery. I have made none to weep.

After reciting the Negative Confession before the forty-two judges, the heart, which is seen as the base of intelligence and memory, would then be put on a golden scale against the white feather of Maat or Ma'at and get weighed. The deceased would be considered as someone who has lived a life free of sins and will be granted entrance to the afterlife, if the heart weighs lighter than the feather. But if the heart weighs heavier than the feather, then the soul of the deceased would be thrown to the Underworld where the merciless monster, Ammut, would devour it.

To avoid such calamity, ancient Egyptians would always take measures to protect and give the much needed strength to the deceased’s heart. There were two common ways they would execute this ritual and one was done through magical spells like the kind depicted in Spell 125 or Spell 30B which reads, “O my heart of my mother! O my heart of my mother! O my heart of my different forms! Do not stand up as a witness against me, do not be opposed to me in the tribunal, do not be hostile to me in the presence of the Keeper of the Balance, for you are my ka which was in my body, the protector who made my members hale.

 

The other method ancient Egyptians commonly used for the protection of the deceased’s heart was the burying of the body with heart shaped scarabs.

In Egyptian mythology the afterlife is a place of eternal bliss; the anxiously awaited paradise where only the gods and the pure would be able to live in. The illustration of the afterlife in Egyptian mythology is quite diverse, but most commonly it is imagined to be a rich and green place, where there were plenty waterways, crops, people, oxen and so forth. The afterlife is often referred to as the ‘Field of Reeds’ in the Book of the Dead; it’s represented as a place that has much similarity to that of life on earth. In the afterlife it is believed that the deceased will be able to join the Great Ennead (a group of gods) and his or her parents. It was also stated in various scriptures that once the deceased passes the judgment and enters the afterlife, he or she will not only join Osiris and all the other supreme Gods, but will also possess some kind of a divine power as well. This belief is illustrated by the way each Book of the Dead starts out as "The Osiris - [Name of the deceased].” The Book of the Dead clearly depicts the marvelous aspects of the afterlife, but it also states that it was mandatory for the deceased to take part in a number of laborious chores. For this reason, the burial mounds would often have several statuettes with spells written on them; these objects were called Shabti or Ushebti

[Preety_India]

Rituals

Ancient Egyptians preformed various kinds of rituals for various reasons; to maintain peace and order in the world, to protect the dead, to seek guidance, help and so forth. It’s no different than how the modern day society goes to church, synagogues, mosques, or temples to pray, praise or give out offerings.

Daily offering ceremonies in temples were one of the most commonly practiced rituals in ancient Egypt. Offering food, clothing, carvings, weapons, tools and so forth was a way of honoring and caring for the gods that have created them. These daily ritual were supervised by temple priests.   Private rituals, such as hymning or evoking mythical events, were also preformed, but these were often referred to as ‘magical’ and they were for the purpose of healing an illness or getting protection.  Breaking red pots after it’s been used for purification by water, was also a customary ritual. It was part of the funerary tradition, which was purposed to protect the dead from their enemies or evil spirits. These pots had inscriptions of the enemy’s name and breaking it symbolized their destruction.   “3 times half loaf offerings and reversion of offerings, 3 times removing the footprints and breaking of the red pots, once lay (down) the royal offering, wash, sit down by the offering, once libation water, incense fire, an offering which the king gives to the Osiris Ni-ankh-pepi” — Rule of this ritual from the Unas- cemetery, Mastaba of Ni-anch-Pepi

 

Sacrifices

 

Blood sacrifice was regarded as the most supreme form of rituals in ancient Egypt. It seen as a very powerful way of appeasing the gods. Initially, animals were the only creatures that were sacrificed. Bulls, for instance, were symbolized as the god Taurus, who had features of both human and animal. So sacrificing the bull was seen as a way of giving the gods a noble gift – a demigod. Crocodiles were also commonly slaughtered, as they symbolized Seth at Edfu and Dendera. Then with the course of time, Egyptians began to sacrifice humans.  During human sacrificial ceremonies, the victims would first be treated and honored as gods before the killing. Historians believe that most of the sacrificial victims were criminals, rebels or prisoners of war. According to the legends, criminals were sacrificed to appease the most powerful goddess in Egyptian mythology, Sekhmet, who was killed by a rebellious person.

 

[Preety_India]

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Edited June 28, 2019 by Preety_India

[Preety_India]

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Edited June 28, 2019 by Preety_India

[Preety_India]

Mummification and burial rituals 

Daily life 

Philosophy of afterlife 

Food and plants and animals 

Significance of gods 

Spells from the book of the Dead 

Significance of pyramids 

Burial chamber 

Myths and legends 

Artifacts 

Death 

 

 

[Preety_India]

Egypt Gods 

The vulture God Nekhbet and the snake God wadjet. 

 

 

 

 

Edited June 29, 2019 by Preety_India

[Preety_India]

Daily life in Ancient Egypt 

Daily Life in Ancient Egypt

by Joshua J. Mark 
published on 21 September 2016

The popular view of life in ancient Egypt is often that it was a death-obsessed culture in which powerful pharaohs forced the people to labor at constructing pyramids and temples and, at an unspecified time, enslaved the Hebrews for this purpose. In reality, ancient Egyptians loved life, no matter their social class, and the ancient Egyptian government used slave labor as every other ancient culture did without regard to any particular ethnicity. The ancient Egyptians did have a well-known contempt for non-Egyptians but this was simply because they believed they were living the best life possible in the best of all possible worlds. Life in ancient Egypt was considered so perfect, in fact, that the Egyptian afterlife was imagined as an eternal continuation of life on earth.  Slaves in Egypt were either criminals, those who could not pay their debts, or captives from foreign military campaigns. These people were considered to have forfeited their freedoms either by their individual choices or by military conquest and so were forced to endure a quality of existence far below that of free Egyptians.

The individuals who actually built the pyramids and other famous monuments of Egypt were Egyptians who were compensated for their labor and, in many cases, were masters of their art. These monuments were raised not in honor of death but of life and the belief that an individual life mattered enough to be remembered for eternity. Further, the Egyptian belief that one's life was an eternal journey and death only a transition inspired the people to try to make their lives worth living eternally. Far from a death-obsessed and dour culture, Egyptian daily life was focused on enjoying the time one had as much as possible and trying to make other's lives equally memorable.  

Sports, games, reading, festivals, and time with one's friends and family were as much a part of Egyptian life as toil in farming the land or erecting monuments and temples. The world of the Egyptians was imbued with magic. Magic (heka) predated the gods and, in fact, was the underlying force which allowed the gods to perform their duties. Magic was personified in the god Heka (also the god of medicine) who had participated in the creation and sustained it afterwards. The concept of ma'at (harmony and balance) was central to the Egyptian's understanding of life and the operation of the universe and it was heka which made ma'atpossible. Through the observance of balance and harmony people were encouraged to live at peace with others and contribute to communal happiness. A line from the wisdom text of Ptahhotep (the vizier to the king Djedkare Isesi, 2414-2375 BCE), admonishes a reader:

Let your face shine during the time that you live.

It is the kindliness of a man that is remembered

During the years that follow.

 

 

Letting one's face "shine" meant being happy, having a good spirit, in the belief that this would make one's own heart light and lighten those of others. Although Egyptian society was highly stratified from a very early period (as early as the Predynastic Period in Egyptof c. 6000-3150 BCE), this does not mean that the royalty and upper classes enjoyed their lives at the expense of the peasantry. The king and court are always the best-documented individuals because then, as now, people paid more attention to celebrities than their neighbors and the scribes who recorded the history of the time documented what was of greater interest. Still, reports from later Greekand Roman writers, as well as archaeological evidence and letters from different time periods, show that Egyptians of all social classes valued life and enjoyed themselves as often as they could, very like people in the modern day.

Population & Social Classes

The population of Egypt was strictly divided into social classes from the king at the top, his vizier, the members of his court, regional governors (eventually called 'nomarchs'), the generals of the military (after the period of the New Kingdom), government overseers of worksites (supervisors), and the peasantry. Social mobility was neither encouraged nor observed for most of Egypt's history as it was thought that the gods had decreed the most perfect social order which mirrored that of the gods. The gods had given the people everything and had set the king over them as the one best-equipped to understand and implement their will. The king was the intermediary between the gods and the people from the Predynastic Period through the Old Kingdom (c. 2613-2181 BCE) when the priests of the sun god Ra began to gain more power. Even after this, however, the king was still considered god's chosen emissary. Even the latter part of the New Kingdom (1570-1069 BCE) when the priests of Amun at Thebes held greater power than the king, the monarch was still respected as divinely ordained.

Upper class

The king of Egypt (not known as a 'pharaoh' until the New Kingdom period), as the gods' chosen man, "enjoyed great wealth and status and luxuries unimaginable to the majority of the population" (Wilkinson, 91). It was the king's responsibility to rule in keeping with ma'at, and as this was a serious charge, he was thought to deserve those luxuries in keeping with his status and the weight of his duties. Historian Don Nardo writes:

The kings enjoyed an existence largely free from want. They had power and prestige, servants to do the menial work, plenty of free time to pursue leisure pursuits, fine clothes, and numerous luxuries in their homes. (10)

 

The king is often depicted hunting and inscriptions regularly boast of the number of large and dangerous animals a particular monarch killed during his reign. Almost without exception, though, animals like lions and elephants were caught by royal game wardens and brought to preserves where the king then "hunted" the beasts while surrounded by guards who protected him. The king would hunt in the open, for the most part, only once the area had been cleared of dangerous animals.

Members of the court lived in similar comfort, although most of them had little responsibility. The nomarchs might also live well, but this depended on how wealthy their particular district was and how important to the king. The nomarch of a district including a site such as Abydos, for example, would expect to do quite well because of the large necropolis there dedicated to the god Osiris, which brought many pilgrims to the city including the king and courtiers. A nomarch of a region which had no such attraction would expect to live more modestly. The wealth of the region and the personal success of an individual nomarch would determine whether they lived in a small palace or a modest home. This same model applied generally to scribes.

Scribes & Physicians

Scribes were valued highly in ancient Egypt as they were considered specially chosen by the god Thoth, who inspired and presided over their craft. Egyptologist Toby Wilkinson notes how "the power of the written word to render permanent a desired state of affairs lay at the heart of Egyptian belief and practice" (204). It was the scribes' responsibility to record events so they would become permanent. The words of the scribes etched daily events in the record of eternity since it was thought that Thoth and his consort Seshat kept the scribes' words in the eternal libraries of the gods. A scribe's work made him or her immortal not only because later generations would read what they wrote but because the gods themselves were aware of it. Seshat, patron goddess of libraries and librarians, carefully placed one's work on her shelves, just as librarians in her service did on earth. Most scribes were male, but there were female scribes who lived just as comfortably as their male counterparts. A popular piece of literature from the Old Kingdom, known as Duauf's Instructions, advocates a love for books and encourages young people to pursue higher learning and become scribes in order to live the best life possible.

 

All priests were scribes, but not all scribes became priests. The priests needed to be able to read and write to perform their duties, especially concerning mortuary rituals. As doctors needed to be literate to read medical texts, they began their training as scribes. Most diseases were thought to be inflicted by the gods as punishment for sin or to teach a lesson, and so doctors needed to be aware of which god (or evil spirit, or ghost, or other supernatural agent) might be responsible. In order to perform their duties, they had to be able to read the religious literature of the time, which includes works on dentistry, surgery, the setting of broken bones, and the treatment of various illnesses. As there was no separation between one's religious and daily life, doctors were usually priests until later in Egypt's history when there is a secularization of the profession. All of the priests of the goddess Serket were doctors and this practice continued even after the emergence of more secular physicians. As in the case of scribes, women could practice medicine, and female doctors were numerous. In the 4th century BCE, Agnodice of Athens famously traveled to Egypt to study medicine since women were held in higher regard and had more opportunity there than in Greece.  

Military

The military prior to the Middle Kingdom was made up of regional militias conscripted by nomarchs for a certain purpose, usually defense, and then sent to the king. At the beginning of the 12th Dynasty of the Middle Kingdom, Amenemhat I (c. 1991-c.1962 BCE) reformed the military to create the first standing army, thus decreasing the power and prestige of the nomarchs and putting the army directly under his control.

After this, the military was made up of upper-class leaders and lower-class rank and file members. There was the possibility of advancement in the military, which was not affected by one's social class. Prior to the New Kingdom, the Egyptian military was primarily concerned with defense, but pharaohs like Tuthmose III (1458-1425 BCE) and Ramesses II (1279-1213 BCE) led campaigns beyond Egypt's borders in expanding the empire. Egyptians generally avoided travel to other lands because they feared that, if they should die there, they would have greater difficulty reaching the afterlife. This belief was a definite concern of soldiers on foreign campaigns and provisions were made to return the bodies of the dead to Egypt for burial.

There is no evidence that women served in the military or, according to some accounts, would have wanted to. The Papyrus Lansing, to give only one example, describes life in the Egyptian army as unending misery leading to an early death. It should be noted, however, that scribes (especially the author of the Papyrus Lansing) consistently depicted their job as the best and most important, and it was the scribes who left behind most of the reports on military life.

 

Farmers & Laborers

The lowest social class was made up of peasant farmers who did not own the land they worked or the homes they lived in. The land was owned by the king, members of the court, nomarchs, or priests. A common phrase of the peasants to start the day was "Let us work for the noble!" The peasants were almost all farmers, no matter what other trade they cultivated (ferryman, for example). They planted and harvested their crops, gave most of it to the land owner, and kept some for themselves. Most had private gardens, which women tended while the men went out to the fields. Up until the time of the Persian invasion of 525 BCE, the Egyptian economy operated on the barter system and was based on agriculture. The monetary unit of ancient Egypt was the deben, which according to historian James C. Thompson, "functioned much as the dollar does in North America today to let customers know the price of things, except that there was no deben coin" (Egyptian Economy, 1). A deben was "approximately 90 grams of copper; very expensive items could also be priced in debens of silver or gold with proportionate changes in value" (ibid). Thompson continues:

Since seventy-five litters of wheat cost one deben and a pair of sandals also cost one deben, it made perfect sense to the Egyptians that a pair of sandals could be purchased with a bag of wheat as easily as with a chunk of copper. Even if the sandal maker had more than enough wheat, she would happily accept it in payment because it could easily be exchanged for something else. The most common items used to make purchases were wheat, barley, and cooking or lamp oil, but in theory almost anything would do. (1) 

The lowest class of society produced the goods used in trade and therefore provided the means for the entire culture to thrive. These peasants also made up the labor force which built the pyramids and other monuments of Egypt. When the Nile River flooded its banks, farming became impossible and the men and women would go to work on the king's projects. This work was always compensated, and the claim that any of the great structures of Egypt were built by slave labor - especially the claim of the biblical Book of Exodus that these were Hebrew slaves oppressed by Egyptian tyrants - is not supported by any literary or physical evidence at any time in Egypt's history. The claim by certain authors such as Egyptologist David Rohl that one misses the evidence of a mass enslavement of Hebrews by looking at the wrong time period is untenable since no such evidence exists no matter what period of Egyptian history one examines.

Work on monuments like the pyramids and their mortuary complexes, temples, and obelisks provided the only opportunity for upward mobility of the peasantry. Especially skilled artists and engravers were in high demand in Egypt and were better paid than unskilled laborers who simply moved the stones for the buildings from one place to another. Peasant farmers could also improve their status by practicing a craft to provide the vases, bowls, plates, and other ceramics people needed. Skilled carpenters could make a good living creating tables, desks, chairs, beds, storage chests, and painters were required for decoration of upper-class homes, palaces, tombs, and monuments.

Brewers were also highly respected, and breweries were sometimes run by women. In early Egyptian history, in fact, they seem to have been entirely operated by females. Beer was the most popular drink in ancient Egypt and was frequently used as compensation (wine was never that popular except among royalty). Workers at the Giza plateau were given a beer ration three times a day. The beverage was thought to have been given to the people by the god Osiris, and breweries were presided over by the goddess Tenenet. Beer was taken very seriously by the Egyptians as the Greek pharaoh Cleopatra VII (69-30 BCE) learned when she imposed a beer tax; her popularity plummeted more for this one tax than for her wars with Rome.

 

The lower class could also find opportunity through work in metals, gems, and sculpting. The exquisite jewelry of ancient Egypt, gems mounted delicately in ornate settings, was created by members of the peasantry. These people, the majority of the Egyptian population, also filled the ranks of the army, and in rare cases, could become scribes. One's job and position in society, however, was usually handed down to one's son.

 

Homes & Furnishings

These artists were responsible for creating the furnishings for the lavish palaces, upper-class homes, and temples of Egypt as well as the tombs which were considered a person's eternal home. The king, his queen, and family lived in a palace which was richly decorated and had their needs tended to by servants. Scribes lived in or near the mortuary or templecomplexes in special apartments and worked from scriptoriums while, as noted, nomarchs lived in greater or lesser accommodations according to their level of success. The peasants who provided the food for the upper classes also helped build their homes and supply them with chests, drawers, chairs, tables, and beds while they themselves could not afford any of these things. Nardo writes:

After a hard day's work, the farmers returned to their houses, which stood near the fields or in small rural villages located nearby. An average agricultural peasant's house featured walls made of mud bricks. The ceiling was fashioned from bundles of plant stems, and the floors consistend of hard-beaten earth covered by a layer of straw or mats made from reeds. There were one or two rooms (perhaps occasionally three) in which the farmer and his wife and children (if any) lived. In many cases, the stabled some or all of their farm animals in the same rooms. Because such modest homes lacked bathrooms, the residents had to use an outside latrine (a hole in the ground) to relieve themselves. Needless to say, water had to be hauled in buckets from the river or the nearest hand-dug well. (13)

By contrast, the palace of the pharaoh Amenhotep III (1386-1353 BCE), known as Malkata today, covered over 30,000 square meters (30 hectares) and included spacious apartments, conference rooms, audience chambers, a throne room and receiving hall, a festival hall, libraries, gardens, storerooms, kitchens, a harem, and a temple to the god Amun. The palace's outer walls were painted bright white while the interior colors were vibrant blues and yellows and greens. The entire structure, of course, had to be furnished and these articles were supplied by the lower class workers. In its time the palace was known as 'the house of rejoicing' and other similar names. It is known as Malkata today from the Arabic for 'place where things are picked up' owing to the massive debris field found there from the ruined palace.

The apartments and homes of scribes, as with those of the nomarchs, were opulent or modest depending on their level of success and the region in which they lived. The author of the Papyrus Lansing, Nebmare Nakht, claimed to live in grand style and to own land and slaves on par with a great king. This claim is no doubt true, too, as it is well established that priests were able to achieve the same level of wealth and power as some rulers in Egypt, and scribes would have had that same opportunity.

Crime & Punishment

In ancient Egypt, as in every era of human history, the wealth of one person was often coveted by another who might choose to steal it, and in such cases, Egyptian law was swift. After the New Kingdom there was a police force, but even before this time, people were brought before the local official and charged with crimes ranging across the spectrum of criminal activity in the modern day. The state did not involve itself in local affairs unless the criminal had robbed or vandalized state property, such as robbing or defacing a tomb. Egyptologist Steven Snape writes: 

The opportunities for criminal activity provided by the concentration of weatlth and property in towns and sities were seized upon wholeheartedly by some ancient Egyptians, just as they have been within all societies. Equally, significant centres of population and administration provided places where justice could be done and punishments meted out. However, the picture we get from ancient Egypt is that the administration of justice was pushed as far down to local lecel as possible. Villagers were expected to regulate their own affairs. (111) 

Judgment and justice were ultimately the responsibility of the vizier, the king's right-hand man, who delegated that responsibility to officials beneath him, who further delegated to others. Even prior to the New Kingdom, there was an administrative building in any city called the Judgment Hall where cases were heard and verdicts rendered. In small towns and villages, these courts might be held in the market place. The local court was known as the kenbet, made up of community leaders of sound moral judgment, who would hear cases and decide on guilt or innocence. In the New Kingdom, the judgment hall and the kenbet were gradually replaced by oracular judgments in which the god Amun would be consulted directly on a verdict. This was accomplished by a priest of Amun asking the statue of the god a question and then interpreting his answer through various means. Sometimes the statue would nod its head, and other times there would be different signs given. If the defendant were found guilty, then punishment was swift. 

Most punishments were fines for minor offenses, but rape, robbery, assault, murder, or tomb robbing could result in mutilation (cutting off of the nose, ears, or hands), incarceration, forced labor (essentially slavery for life in many cases), or death. The Great Prison at Thebes held convicted felons who were used for manual labor on the Temple of Amun at Karnak and other projects. There was no death row in Egyptian prisons since a person who was found guilty of a serious offense meriting the death penalty was executed immediately. There were no lawyers to argue a case and no appeals made after a verdict was rendered. The priests were entrusted by the people to give a fair and just hearing to any complaint and to judge according to the precepts of the gods, knowing that they faced a far worse fate in the afterlife should they fail in these duties.

Family & Leisure

Priests could be male or female. The chief priest of any religious cult was usually the same sex as the deity they served; the head of the Cult of Isis was female, that of the Cult of Amun, male. Priests could and did have families, and their children usually became priests after them.

This was the paradigm for all of Egypt as far as succession went: the children carried on the occupation of the parents, usually the father. Women had almost equal rights in ancient Egypt. They could own their own businesses, their own land, and their own homes, could initiate divorce, enter into contracts with men, have abortions, and dispose of their own property as they saw fit; this was a level of sexual equality which no other ancient civilizationapproached and which the modern era only initiated - under duress - in the mid-20th century CE.

At least four women ruled Egypt, the best known two being Hatshepsut (1479-1458 BCE) and Cleopatra VII. This was not the norm, however, as most rulers were male. Royal women, for the most part, had slaves and servants who cared for the children and had no responsibility for cleaning or tending the home. They assisted their husbands in receiving foreign dignitaries and advancing certain policies. Women of the upper classes knew a similar lifestyle but might have taken more time caring for the children, while in the lower classes, the care of the home and children were wholly the woman's responsibility.

Marriages in ancient Egypt were more of a secular than religious affair. Most marriages, in any of the classes, were arranged by the parents. Girls were usually married around the age of 12 and boys around age 15. Royal children were often betrothed to those of foreign kings to seal treaties when they were little more than infants, though it was forbidden for women to leave Egypt as brides for foreign rulers since it was thought they would not be happy outside of their own land. Since Egypt was the best of all places, it was considered disrespectful to a young woman to send her off to some lesser place. It was 8perfectly acceptable for foreign-born women to come to Egypt as brides, however. Once in Egypt, these women were accorded the same respect as natives. Women of all social classes were considered on par with their husbands, even though the man was considered the head of the household. Nardo notes:

Upper-class husbands and wives dined, held parties, and went hunting together, while both well-to-do and poorer women shared many legal rights with men. In fact, ancient Egyptian women seem to have enjoyed more freedom in their private lives than women in most other ancient societies, even if men made most of the really important decisions. Egyptian men benefitted from positive, loving relationships as much as their wives did. (23)

Although the wives of farmers did not go out to the fields with their husbands (for the most part), they still had plenty of work to do keeping the house clean, tending to any animals not used in plowing, administering to the needs of the elderly in the family, and raising the children. Women and children also would tend the family garden, which was an important resource for any family. Cleanliness was an important value of the Egyptians, and one's person and home needed to reflect that. Women and men of all classes bathed frequently (priests more than any other profession) and shaved their heads to prevent lice and cut down on maintenance. When an occasion called for it, they wore wigs. Men and women also both wore makeup, especially kohl under the eyes, to help with the sun's glare and keep the skin soft. Tomb inscriptions and paintings also often show men and women plowing and harvesting in the fields together or building a home.

The life of the ancient Egyptians was hardly all work, however. They found plenty of time to enjoy themselves through sports, board games, and other activities. Ancient Egyptian sports included hockey, handball, archery, swimming, tug of war, gymnastics, rowing, and a sport known as 'water jousting,' which was a sea battle played in small boats on the Nile River in which a 'jouster' tried to knock the other out of his boat while a second team member maneuvered the craft. Children were taught to swim at an early age, and swimming was among the most popular sports, which gave rise to other water games. The board game of Senet was extremely popular, representing one's journey through life to eternity. Music, dance, choreographed gymnastics, and wrestling were also popular, and among the upper classes, hunting large or small game was a favorite pastime.

There was also a sport called 'shooting the rapids,' which is described by the Roman playwright Seneca the Younger (1st century CE) who lived in Egypt:

The people embark on small boats, two to a boat, and one rows while the other bails out water. Then they are violently tossed about in the raging rapids. At length they reach the narrowest channels and, swept along by the whole force of the river, they control the rushing boat by hand and plunge head downward to the great terror of the onlookers. You would believe sorrowfully that by now they were drowned and overwhelmed by such a mass of water when, far from the place where they fell, they shoot out as from a catapult, still sailing, and the subsiding wave does not submerge them but carries them on to smooth waters. (cited in Nardo, 20)

After or even during such events, spectators enjoyed their favorite beverage: beer. The favored recipe most often consumed was Heqet (also given as Hecht), a honey-flavored beer similar to, but lighter than, the later mead of Europe. There were many kinds of beer (generally known as zytum), and it was frequently prescribed as a medicine as it made the heart lighter and improved one's spirits. Beer was brewed commercially and at home and was especially enjoyed at the many festivals the Egyptians celebrated.

Festivals, Food & Clothing

All of the Egyptian gods had birthdays which needed to be celebrated, and then there were individual birthdays, the anniversaries of great deeds of the king, observances of acts of the gods in human history, and also funerals, wakes, house-warming events, and births. All of these and more were celebrated with a party or a festival.

The festivals of ancient Egypt were each unique in character depending on the nature of the event, but all had in common drinking and feasting. The Egyptian diet was mainly vegetarian and consisted of grains (wheat) and vegetables. Meat was very expensive, and usually only royalty was able to afford it. Meat was also difficult to keep in the arid Egyptian climate, and so animals who were ritually slaughtered had to be used quickly.

Festivals were the perfect opportunity for indulging in every kind of excess, including meat eating for those who chose to do so, though self-indulgence was not appropriate at every gathering. Each celebration or commemoration had its own unique characteristics as historian Margaret Bunson explains:

The Beautiful Feast of the Valley, in honor of the god Amun, held in Thebes, was celebrated with a procession of the barks of the gods, with music and flowers. The Feast of Hathor, celebrated at Dendera, was a time of pleasure and intoxication, in keeping with the myths of the goddesses' cult. The feast of the goddess Isis at Busiris and the celebration honoring Bastet at Bubastis were also times of revelry and intoxication. (91)

These festivals were "normally religious in nature and held in conjunction with the lunar calendar in temples" but could also "commemorate certain specific events in the daily lives of the people" (Bunson, 90). At funerals, as one would expect, people dressed in respectful black (though the priests usually wore white) while at birthdays or other celebrations one wore whatever one pleased. At the Festival of Bastet, women wore nothing but a short kilt which they often raised in honor of the goddess.

Clothing in ancient Egypt was linen woven from cotton. In the Predynastic and Early Dynastic Periods, women and men both wore simple linen kilts. Children went naked from birth until around the age of ten. Bunson notes that "In time women wore an empire-type long skirt that hung just below their uncovered breasts. Men kept to the simple kilts. These could be dyed in exotic colors or designs although white was probably the color used in religious rituals or court events"(67). By the time of the New Kingdom women wore linen dresses which covered their breasts and went to their ankles while men wore the short kilt and sometimes a loose shirt. Lower-class women, female slaves, and female servants are often shown wearing only a kilt through the New Kingdom period. At this same time, royal or noble women are shown wearing form-fitting dresses from the shoulder to the ankles and men are seen in sheer blouses and skirts. In the colder weather of the rainy season, cloaks and shawls were used.

Most people, of every social class, went barefoot in emulation of the gods who had no need for footwear. On special occasions, or when someone was going on a long journey or to a place where they might injure their feet or in colder weather, they wore sandals. The cheapest sandals were made of woven rushes while the most expensive were of leather or painted wood. Sandals do not seem to have a great deal of importance to the Egyptians until the Middle and New Kingdoms when they came to be seen as status symbols. A person who could afford good sandals was obviously doing well while the poorest people went barefoot. These sandals were often painted or decorated with images which could be quite elaborate.

At festival times - and there were many of them throughout the Egyptian year - the clothing of the priests was white, but people could wear anything they wanted or almost nothing at all. The Egyptians wanted to live life to its fullest, to experience all their time on earth had to give, and looked forward to its continuance after death.

One's earthly life was only a part of an eternal journey, and one's death was seen as a transition from one phase to the next. A proper burial was of the utmost importance to the ancient Egyptians of every class. The body of the deceased was washed, dressed in wrappings (mummified), and buried with those objects which they would want or need in the afterlife. The more money one had, of course, the more elaborate one's tomb and grave goods, but even the poorest people provided proper graves for their loved ones. Without a proper burial one could not hope to move on to the Hall of Truth and pass the judgment of Osiris. Further, if a family did not honor the dead properly at death, they were almost guaranteeing the return of that person's spirit, which would haunt them and cause all manner of trouble. Honoring the dead meant not only paying respects to that individual but to the individual's contributions and achievements in life, all of which were made possible by the goodness of the gods.

Living with mindfulness of kindness, harmony, balance, and gratitude toward the gods, they hoped to find their hearts lighter than the feather of truth when they came to stand in judgment before Osiris after death. Once they had been justified, they would pass on to an eternity of the very daily life they had left behind when they died. Everything in their lives which seemed lost at death was returned in the afterlife. Their emphasis, in every aspect of their lives, was to create a life worth living for an eternity. No doubt many individuals often failed at this, but the ideal was one worth striving for and imbued the daily lives of the ancient Egyptians with a meaning and purpose which infused and inspired their impressive culture. 

 

... The ancient Egyptians have a very classism based life. Not much freedom with regard to occupation. Marriage is arrange marriage. Again no freedom. Peasants do not have a life at all. Scribes have all the power just because they are religious. Your luck depends on your wealth. They were very narcissistic in the display of their art and hugeness of their buildings or temples. Women rulers were hated. Women were only loved because they became wives. Sons were given a greater value over the daughters. The whole afterlife theory was bungled and used as a way to control the masses and their behaviors and to instill discipline and also as a means to extort money by the scribes more like emotional blackmail. Mummification was only for the rich and the poor were thrown in shallow Graves. The temples were only built to instill fear by showing magnificence and glory more like fake glory. Lots of festivals which made life confusing with too many meaningless rituals. No real reflection. Everything is symbolic. Polytheistic and thousands of useless gods to feel secure. Very rule oriented. No space for personal freedom. Sex as only a mechanical process. Human and animal sacrifice. No regard for life. Too many rituals rules and symbols. Looks very imposing and strict. Men revelled and women toiled. Drinking was a huge part of life. The poor lived a miserable life and the rich feasted on the hard work and exploitation of the poor. The rich wanted pride and glory and huge status, a perfect narcissistic display of wealth and power shown through the enormousneas and wealth of tombs and mortuary temples. It's not God who was eternal. It's the rich who were eternal. Even the good food was only for the rich. The religion was a total cult made of several cults with power struggles between different cults. The male gods had cult headed by a male and female gods had a cult dominated by a woman. Too many symbols and scripts  very difficult to decipher by illiterate poor thus easily blackmailed and taken advantage of. 

In this kind of culture, life would feel like a punishment and death more like a deliverance and one would feel like a prisoner of life 

 

 

Edited June 29, 2019 by Preety_India

[Preety_India]

domesticated the cat 
pyramids 
make-up 
women kings 
beer 
astronomy 
shadoff 
paper 
locks 
sun clocks, water clocks 
physical / spiritual medicinal care 
black Ink 
ox-drawn plows 
365 day calendar and Leap Year 
organized labor 
hieroglyphics 
sails 
taxes 
obelisks 
canals 
arched ceilings 
survey techniques 
tunneling 
scaffolding 
bronze 
copper piping 
iron works, copper and tin mines 
fine metal works (jewelry, needles) 
vaulted ceilings 
indoor lighting / lighting to create specific visual effects 
air-cooling systems based on using water 
concept of a master bedroom 
potter's wheel 
glass making 
Faience 
identification and naming of internal and external body parts, development of various surgical instruments, surgical techniques 
specialists for treating specific ailments relating to the head, eyes, ears, the stomach and fertility. This also included dentists 
antibiotics 
Hieroglyphics 
flags for construction projects 
wills, marriage contracts and other legal documents 
recording harvests and controlling food supply and distribution 
documenting rainfall and water levels of the Nile 
census of the population 
postal system and the use of carrier pigeons 
maps 
comb including use of a hot hair straightening comb 
use of a form of henna for nail paint and hair coloring 
scissors 
wigs 
perfumes and deodorants 
toothbrush & toothpaste 
looms 
cloth dyes 
sistrum 
lyre 
oud 
kithara 
zummara 
ney 
kinnor 
hasosra 
ugab 
shofar 
sickels 
irrigation system 
domestication of cattle and the donkey 
beekeeping 
zoos 
rudder 
a navy 
the ramp 
the lever